The history of Egypt is one of the richest, oldest and most varied of any country in the world, and the country's place in the history of the Middle East is as central now as it was in the fourth millenium BC. The unification of the Lower and the Upper Kingdoms in about 3180BC marks a convenient starting point for Egyptian history. This dynamic, culturally sophisticated and powerful kingdom on the banks of the Nile grew into one of the greatest civilisations of the ancient world. The pre-Hellenic period is reckoned in Kingdoms (Old, Middle and New) and subdivided into dynasties; the IVth saw the construction of such architectural masterpieces as the Great Pyramid, and the XIth and XIIth saw the zenith of Egyptian power at the start of the second millenium.

Tutankhamun, whose magnificent tomb was discovered in 1922, ruled briefly during the XVIIIth Dynasty. From the XXth Dynasty onwards the power of Egypt was on the wane, and the country was overrun on several occasions by foreign armies, including those of the Nubians, Ethiopians and Persians. The latest and most permanent of these invasions, which brought the Pharaonic period to an end, was that of Alexander the Great in 332BC. During the Hellenic and Augustan Roman period (which began in AD30 as a result of the defeat of Anthony at the Battle of Actium), the emergence of law and literature in Alexandria allowed seven centuries of comparative peace and economic stability. From the middle of the 4th century, Egypt became part of the Eastern Empire.

Then, in 642, an invading Arab army - one manifestation of the rapid Islamic conquests which followed the death of Mohammed - was welcomed by the Coptic Christians in preference to their previous Greek rulers. The Fatamids gained control of the country in the late 10th century but their power declined after a century or so. The subsequent revival of Muslim fortunes, and the reawakening of the spirit of Jihad (holy war), was largely associated with the career of Saladin, whose control of Egypt enabled him to reunite much of the Muslim world. The Mamelukes, who ruled Egypt from 1250-1517, prevented Mongol and Christian conquests, but were unable to prevent the eventual usurpation of their own power by the Ottoman Turks. Under Ottoman rule, Egypt became a somewhat neglected corner of a large and increasingly moribund empire.

The Mamelukes briefly regained power, but the arrival of Napoleon in 1798 brought Egypt once more into violent contact with a European power. By 1805, however, the struggle for independence had been won, Muhammed Ali being recognised as Sultan. A generally pro-Western policy was followed by Muhammed and his successors. The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, but subsequent financial problems and internal struggles led to a British occupation, which was maintained from 1882-1936. For the next ten years, Egypt was formally independent though severely constrained by the British. Discontent against the Government culminated in the 1952 revolution by young army officers, led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. After consolidating his position as President of the new government, Nasser took the Suez Canal into public ownership with all revenues directed to the Egyptian treasury. This led to the Suez Crisis of 1956 in which a combined Anglo-French-Israeli military operation attempted to seize and depose Nasser. The failure of the operation greatly enhanced Nasser's standing and inspired supporters throughout the Middle East who shared his vision of a united Arab world free from foreign interference. Disputes between Arab countries scuppered these plans.

The defeat of Arab forces by Israel in the 1967 Six Day War deprived Egypt of the Sinai peninsula and the Gaza strip, land which was recovered only after another defeat by the Israelis in the Yom Kippur war of 1973 and the subsequent Egyptian-Israeli peace initiative which culminated in the 1979 Camp David accord. The treaty was signed on the Egyptian side by Nasser's successor, Anwar El-Sadat, and this, along with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt after the Iranian revolution, accounted for his assassination in 1981. Sadat was succeeded by his deputy, Hosni Mubarak, who pursued similar policies to his former boss. However, the rapprochement with the Arab world (especially Saudi Arabia) at the Amman Summit in 1987, instigated a new phase of diplomatic relations within the Middle East and the start of the rehabilitation of the Mubarak government into the wider Arab community.

The appointment of an Egyptian, Boutros Boutros Ghali, as UN Secretary General in 1992 was welcomed in Egypt as recognition of the important role it has to play in the Middle East and the Third World generally. The Egyptians have since been closely involved in the Israeli-Palestinian political settlement. The Mubarak government has been broadly supportive of the September 1993 agreement between the two sides which initiates Palestinian autonomy on the ground. Domestically, the Egyptian government continues to worry about the Islamists' persistent political strength and popular appeal. Draconian 'anti-terrorist' legislation was introduced to deal with them, and the government appears to have had some success in suppressing the militants' violent campaign. Previous attacks on tourists have been effective, however, in depressing the country's vital tourist industry. Although the peace accord with Israel led directly to his predecessor's assassination, Mubarak is aware that Egypt's deep-rooted social and economic problems render the Islamists an attractive option for many young Egyptians and that until these problems are tackled effectively, opposition to his government will not only persist but increase.

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